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Both CSE and NNK, major inflammatory inducers in the smoking process, activated the NF-B pathway, as evidenced by the increased mRNA expression of RELA and its target gene BAX (Fig

As well, metformin has a profound effect on the alleviation of dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the SN and associated neuroinflammation (Shukla et al

Background Incretins are gut-derived peptide hormones secreted after nutrient intake to enhance glucose-dependent insulin release from pancreatic -cells

Microbial modulation shows promise in neurological health

The most common GLP-1 side effects are gastrointestinal upset: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and constipation

Brain Behav Immun 37:197206